When cement comes into contact with water, hydration occurs. This is an exothermic chemical reaction that produces binding products such as C-S-H (calcium silicate hydrate) and Ca(OH)₂. The heat generated gradually increases the temperature inside the concrete mass, especially in the core where heat dissipation is difficult.
Large-volume concrete dissipates heat very slowly. As a result, the heat from hydration is trapped, causing the core temperature to rise much higher than the surface. This temperature differential can easily lead to thermal stresses and cracking.
In addition to internally generated heat, concrete also absorbs heat from the environment, especially when construction takes place during the day or in hot weather. This further raises surface temperatures, increasing the temperature gradient between the surface and the core.
Excessive temperature leads to thermal cracking as the concrete cools.
Accelerated reaction rate makes the concrete set faster, increasing the risk of surface drying and plastic shrinkage cracks.
Long-term durability may be compromised, particularly in large mass concrete structures such as dams, foundations, and thick elements.
The Hoover Dam was not cast as a single continuous block. If it had been, the heat from hydration would not have dissipated, and the concrete core could have taken up to 125 years to fully cool—posing risks of cracking and structural failure. Instead, construction adopted a block-pour method, dividing the dam into rectangular blocks about 15 m x 15 m and 1.5 m high. This allowed faster heat dissipation and tighter control of the setting process. Once the concrete cooled, the joints between blocks were grouted to form a monolithic structure.
Each block was embedded with steel pipes 1 inch (25 mm) in diameter, totaling more than 580 miles in length. Initially, cool river water circulated through the pipes to lower the temperature; later, the system switched to chilled water supplied from a refrigeration plant.
The on-site refrigeration plant was one of the largest of its time, capable of producing about 1,000 tons of ice per day. Cold water from the plant was continuously pumped through the embedded pipes to extract heat, enabling the concrete to cool safely within months instead of decades.
The cooling process was carried out in two stages:
Circulating natural river water.
Circulating chilled water from the refrigeration plant.
The system was operated alternately across elevation zones to ensure optimal thermal conditions in each construction area and to prevent thermal stresses that cause cracking.
Block-pour method: prevents thermal cracking and accelerates cooling.
Integrated cooling system: enables real-time temperature regulation and control of thermal gradients (core–surface).
Dedicated refrigeration plant: ensures a stable and sufficient cooling supply, especially during hot seasons.
Post-cooling grouting: ensures strong bonding between blocks and restores monolithic integrity.
Two-stage, block-based cooling: became a benchmark for future large-scale concrete structures such as hydroelectric dams and massive foundations.
To mitigate thermal cracking in mass concrete, multiple strategies are applied simultaneously. First, the concrete mix is optimized by reducing cement content and substituting fly ash, slag, or pozzolans to lower hydration heat. Construction typically employs block pours, combined with cooling of water and aggregates, and embedded circulation pipes to extract heat internally. Externally, insulation blankets and continuous moist curing are used to prevent large surface-core temperature differences.
In parallel, temperature sensors are installed inside the mass to provide real-time monitoring, allowing timely interventions if thresholds are exceeded. Retarding admixtures and detailed thermal control plans are also vital tools, ensuring construction safety and long-term durability.
[1] “Why concrete gets so hot,” Construct Update, [Online]. Available: https://www.constructupdate.com/why-concrete-gets-so-hot/#gsc.tab=0. [Accessed: 27-Aug-2025].
[2] J. D. Rogers, “Hoover Dam: Operational Milestones, Lessons Learned and Strategic Import,” Hoover Dam 75th Anniversary History Symposium, Oct. 2010.
[3] “Guidelines for Temperature Control of Mass Concrete,” Auburn University Highway Research Center, Auburn, AL. [Online]. Available: https://eng.auburn.edu/files/centers/hrc/930-860r-temperature-control. [Accessed: 27-Aug-2025].
[4] EB547 – Mass Concrete Construction Guide, Portland Cement Association, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.cement.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/EB547. [Accessed: 27-Aug-2025].
[5] J. B. Alper, “Mass Concreting,” STRUCTURE Magazine. [Online]. Available: https://www.structuremag.org/article/mass-concreting/. [Accessed: 27-Aug-2025].
[6] R. Detwiler, “Thermal control plans for mass concrete,” Beton Consulting Engineers, 10-Sep-2020. [Online]. Available: https://www.betonconsultingeng.com/thermal-control-plans-for-mass-concrete-2/. [Accessed: 27-Aug-2025].
[7] “The Colorado River and Hoover Dam Facts and Figures,” U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. [Online]. Available: https://www.usbr.gov/lc/region/pao/faq.html. [Accessed: 27-Aug-2025].
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